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Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on conditions forecasting

This commodity is about the study of weather. For the treatise by Aristotle, run into Meteorology (Aristotle). For the science of measurement, see Metrology. For the study of meteors, see Meteoritics.

Meteorology is a co-operative of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics), with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did non begin until the 18th century. The 19th century saw minor progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of conditions depended on historical data. It was non until after the elucidation of the laws of physics and more particularly, the development of the reckoner, allowing for the automated solution of a great many equations that model the weather, in the latter half of the 20th century that significant breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved. An important co-operative of weather forecasting is marine weather forecasting as it relates to maritime and coastal safety, in which weather condition effects also include atmospheric interactions with large bodies of h2o.

Meteorological phenomena are observable conditions events that are explained by the scientific discipline of meteorology. Meteorological phenomena are described and quantified by the variables of World's atmosphere: temperature, air pressure, water vapour, mass catamenia, and the variations and interactions of these variables, and how they change over time. Dissimilar spatial scales are used to depict and predict weather condition on local, regional, and global levels.

Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemical science are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology etch the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology. The interactions betwixt World's atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled body of water-temper system. Meteorology has application in many diverse fields such as the military, free energy production, transport, agriculture, and construction.

The word meteorology is from the Ancient Greek μετέωρος metéōros (meteor) and -λογία -logia (-(o)logy), pregnant "the study of things high in the air."

History [edit]

The ability to predict rains and floods based on annual cycles was evidently used past humans at to the lowest degree from the time of agricultural settlement if not earlier. Early approaches to predicting weather condition were based on star divination and were practiced by priests. Cuneiform inscriptions on Babylonian tablets included associations between thunder and rain. The Chaldeans differentiated the 22° and 46° halos.[1]

Ancient Indian Upanishads contain mentions of clouds and seasons.[2] The Samaveda mentions sacrifices to be performed when certain phenomena were noticed.[ane] Varāhamihira's classical piece of work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD,[2] provides bear witness of weather observation.

In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote Meteorology.[iii] Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology.[4] 1 of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known equally the hydrologic cycle.[5]

The book De Mundo (composed before 250 BC or between 350 and 200 BC) noted:[six]

If the flashing body is gear up on fire and rushes violently to the Globe information technology is chosen a thunderbolt; if it is merely one-half of fire, just violent as well and massive, it is chosen a shooting star; if it is entirely free from burn, information technology is chosen a smoking bolt. They are all called 'swooping bolts' because they swoop downward upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is and then called 'smoldering lightning"; sometimes it darts rapidly along, and is then said to be vivid. At other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is chosen forked lightning. When information technology swoops downwards upon some object it is called 'swooping lightning'.

The Greek scientist Theophrastus compiled a volume on weather forecasting, called the Volume of Signs. The piece of work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in the study of weather and in weather forecasting for nearly 2,000 years.[7] In 25 Ad, Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman Empire, formalized the climatic zone system.[8] According to Toufic Fahd, effectually the ninth century, Al-Dinawari wrote the Kitab al-Nabat (Book of Plants), in which he deals with the application of meteorology to agriculture during the Arab Agricultural Revolution. He describes the meteorological character of the sky, the planets and constellations, the sun and moon, the lunar phases indicating seasons and rain, the anwa (heavenly bodies of rain), and atmospheric phenomena such every bit winds, thunder, lightning, snow, floods, valleys, rivers, lakes.[nine] [x] [ verification needed ]

Early attempts at predicting conditions were oft related to prophecy and divining, and were sometimes based on astrological ideas. Admiral FitzRoy tried to separate scientific approaches from prophetic ones.[xi]

Enquiry of visual atmospheric phenomena [edit]

Ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of calorie-free in the context of astronomical observations.[12] In 1021, Alhazen showed that atmospheric refraction is too responsible for twilight; he estimated that twilight begins when the sunday is 19 degrees below the horizon, and as well used a geometric determination based on this to estimate the maximum possible height of the World's atmosphere every bit 52,000 passim (about 49 miles, or 79 km).[13]

St. Albert the Great was the kickoff to propose that each drop of falling rain had the form of a small sphere, and that this form meant that the rainbow was produced by lite interacting with each raindrop.[fourteen] Roger Bacon was the beginning to calculate the athwart size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit can non appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon.[15] In the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the right explanations for the primary rainbow miracle. Theoderic went further and besides explained the secondary rainbow.[xvi] In 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused past "magnetic effluvia" moving along the World'southward magnetic field lines.

Instruments and classification scales [edit]

A hemispherical cup anemometer

In 1441, Rex Sejong's son, Prince Munjong of Korea, invented the first standardized rain gauge.[17] These were sent throughout the Joseon dynasty of Korea equally an official tool to assess country taxes based upon a farmer's potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first anemometer.[18] In 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope. In 1611, Johannes Kepler wrote the get-go scientific treatise on snow crystals: "Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula (A New Twelvemonth'due south Gift of Hexagonal Snowfall)."[19] In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli invented the mercury barometer.[xviii] In 1662, Sir Christopher Wren invented the mechanical, cocky-emptying, tipping saucepan rain gauge. In 1714, Gabriel Fahrenheit created a reliable scale for measuring temperature with a mercury-type thermometer.[twenty] In 1742, Anders Celsius, a Swedish astronomer, proposed the "centigrade" temperature scale, the predecessor of the current Celsius scale.[21] In 1783, the first pilus hygrometer was demonstrated past Horace-Bénédict de Saussure. In 1802–1803, Luke Howard wrote On the Modification of Clouds, in which he assigns cloud types Latin names.[22] In 1806, Francis Beaufort introduced his system for classifying air current speeds.[23] Most the end of the 19th century the first cloud atlases were published, including the International Cloud Atlas, which has remained in print ever since. The April 1960 launch of the first successful weather condition satellite, TIROS-1, marked the beginning of the historic period where weather data became available globally.

Atmospheric composition research [edit]

In 1648, Blaise Pascal rediscovered that atmospheric pressure decreases with height, and deduced that there is a vacuum above the atmosphere.[24] In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published Hydrodynamics, initiating the Kinetic theory of gases and established the basic laws for the theory of gases.[25] In 1761, Joseph Blackness discovered that water ice absorbs heat without irresolute its temperature when melting. In 1772, Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen, which he called phlogisticated air, and together they developed the phlogiston theory.[26] In 1777, Antoine Lavoisier discovered oxygen and developed an caption for combustion.[27] In 1783, in Lavoisier'southward essay "Reflexions sur le phlogistique,"[28] he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory.[29] [30] In 1804, Sir John Leslie observed that a matte blackness surface radiates heat more finer than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation. In 1808, John Dalton defended caloric theory in A New Arrangement of Chemistry and described how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposed that the rut capacity of gases varies inversely with diminutive weight. In 1824, Sadi Carnot analyzed the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he adult the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in nature, laid the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics.

Enquiry into cyclones and air flow [edit]

Full general circulation of the Earth's atmosphere: The westerlies and trade winds are part of the Earth'southward atmospheric apportionment.

In 1494, Christopher Columbus experienced a tropical whirlwind, which led to the starting time written European account of a hurricane.[31] In 1686, Edmund Halley presented a systematic written report of the trade winds and monsoons and identified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions.[32] In 1735, an ideal explanation of global circulation through report of the trade winds was written by George Hadley.[33] In 1743, when Benjamin Franklin was prevented from seeing a lunar eclipse past a hurricane, he decided that cyclones move in a opposite manner to the winds at their periphery.[34] Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Globe affects airflow was fractional at get-go. Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the free energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as waterwheels.[35] In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a apportionment cell in the mid-latitudes, and the air within deflected by the Coriolis force resulting in the prevailing westerly winds.[36] Late in the 19th century, the motion of air masses along isobars was understood to exist the result of the large-calibration interaction of the pressure gradient forcefulness and the deflecting forcefulness. By 1912, this deflecting forcefulness was named the Coriolis event.[37] Just after World War I, a group of meteorologists in Norway led by Vilhelm Bjerknes developed the Norwegian whirlwind model that explains the generation, intensification and ultimate decay (the life cycle) of mid-latitude cyclones, and introduced the thought of fronts, that is, sharply defined boundaries between air masses.[38] The group included Carl-Gustaf Rossby (who was the offset to explain the large calibration atmospheric flow in terms of fluid dynamics), Tor Bergeron (who first determined how rain forms) and Jacob Bjerknes.

Observation networks and weather forecasting [edit]

Deject classification past distance of occurrence

This "Hyetographic or Rain Map of Europe" was also published in 1848 as part of "The Physical Atlas".

In the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century a range of meteorological instruments were invented – the thermometer, barometer, hydrometer, as well as wind and rain gauges. In the 1650s natural philosophers started using these instruments to systematically record weather observations. Scientific academies established weather diaries and organised observational networks.[39] In 1654, Ferdinando Two de Medici established the first weather observing network, that consisted of meteorological stations in Florence, Cutigliano, Vallombrosa, Bologna, Parma, Milan, Innsbruck, Osnabrück, Paris and Warsaw. The collected data were sent to Florence at regular time intervals.[twoscore] In the 1660s Robert Hooke of the Royal Guild of London sponsored networks of weather observers. Hippocrates' treatise Airs, Waters, and Places had linked weather condition to disease. Thus early on meteorologists attempted to correlate atmospheric condition patterns with epidemic outbreaks, and the climate with public health.[39]

During the Age of Enlightenment meteorology tried to rationalise traditional weather lore, including astrological meteorology. But there were besides attempts to plant a theoretical agreement of weather phenomena. Edmond Halley and George Hadley tried to explicate trade winds. They reasoned that the rise mass of heated equator air is replaced past an inflow of cooler air from high latitudes. A flow of warm air at high altitude from equator to poles in plow established an early film of circulation. Frustration with the lack of discipline among weather observers, and the poor quality of the instruments, led the early mod nation states to organise big observation networks. Thus by the end of the 18th century, meteorologists had access to large quantities of reliable weather data.[39] In 1832, an electromagnetic telegraph was created by Businesswoman Schilling.[41] The arrival of the electric telegraph in 1837 afforded, for the first time, a practical method for apace gathering surface weather observations from a wide area.[42]

This data could be used to produce maps of the state of the atmosphere for a region about the Earth's surface and to study how these states evolved through time. To make frequent weather forecasts based on these data required a reliable network of observations, but it was not until 1849 that the Smithsonian Institution began to found an observation network beyond the United States nether the leadership of Joseph Henry.[43] Similar ascertainment networks were established in Europe at this time. The Reverend William Cloudless Ley was key in understanding of cirrus clouds and early understandings of Jet Streams.[44] Charles Kenneth Mackinnon Douglas, known every bit 'CKM' Douglas read Ley'south papers after his death and carried on the early study of weather systems.[45] Nineteenth century researchers in meteorology were drawn from armed forces or medical backgrounds, rather than trained as dedicated scientists.[46] In 1854, the United Kingdom government appointed Robert FitzRoy to the new function of Meteorological Statist to the Board of Merchandise with the task of gathering weather observations at ocean. FitzRoy'southward office became the United Kingdom Meteorological Office in 1854, the second oldest national meteorological service in the globe (the Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics (ZAMG) in Republic of austria was founded in 1851 and is the oldest weather service in the earth). The first daily weather forecasts made by FitzRoy's Office were published in The Times newspaper in 1860. The following yr a system was introduced of hoisting storm alert cones at principal ports when a gale was expected.

Over the side by side fifty years, many countries established national meteorological services. The India Meteorological Department (1875) was established to follow tropical cyclone and monsoon.[47] The Finnish Meteorological Key Office (1881) was formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of Helsinki University.[48] Japan'due south Tokyo Meteorological Observatory, the forerunner of the Japan Meteorological Agency, began amalgam surface weather maps in 1883.[49] The United States Conditions Bureau (1890) was established under the United States Section of Agriculture. The Australian Bureau of Meteorology (1906) was established by a Meteorology Act to unify existing state meteorological services.[50] [51]

Numerical conditions prediction [edit]

A meteorologist at the console of the IBM 7090 in the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit of measurement. c. 1965

In 1904, Norwegian scientist Vilhelm Bjerknes outset argued in his paper Conditions Forecasting as a Problem in Mechanics and Physics that it should exist possible to forecast weather from calculations based upon natural laws.[52] [53]

It was not until later in the 20th century that advances in the agreement of atmospheric physics led to the foundation of mod numerical weather prediction. In 1922, Lewis Fry Richardson published "Atmospheric condition Prediction By Numerical Process,"[54] after finding notes and derivations he worked on every bit an ambulance commuter in World State of war I. He described how small terms in the prognostic fluid dynamics equations that govern atmospheric menstruum could exist neglected, and a numerical adding scheme that could be devised to permit predictions. Richardson envisioned a large auditorium of thousands of people performing the calculations. Withal, the sheer number of calculations required was likewise large to complete without electronic computers, and the size of the grid and time steps used in the calculations led to unrealistic results. Though numerical analysis later found that this was due to numerical instability.

Starting in the 1950s, numerical forecasts with computers became feasible.[55] The first weather forecasts derived this way used barotropic (single-vertical-level) models, and could successfully predict the large-scale motion of midlatitude Rossby waves, that is, the design of atmospheric lows and highs.[56] In 1959, the Uk Meteorological Office received its first estimator, a Ferranti Mercury.[57]

In the 1960s, the chaotic nature of the temper was get-go observed and mathematically described by Edward Lorenz, founding the field of chaos theory.[58] These advances have led to the current employ of ensemble forecasting in most major forecasting centers, to take into business relationship incertitude arising from the cluttered nature of the atmosphere.[59] Mathematical models used to predict the long term weather of the Earth (climate models), have been developed that have a resolution today that are as fibroid as the older weather condition prediction models. These climate models are used to investigate long-term climate shifts, such as what effects might exist caused by human emission of greenhouse gases.

Meteorologists [edit]

Meteorologists are scientists who report and work in the field of meteorology.[60] The American Meteorological Order publishes and continually updates an authoritative electronic Meteorology Glossary.[61] Meteorologists work in authorities agencies, individual consulting and enquiry services, industrial enterprises, utilities, radio and television stations, and in education. In the United states, meteorologists held nigh 10,000 jobs in 2018.[62]

Although weather condition forecasts and warnings are the best known products of meteorologists for the public, weather presenters on radio and tv set are not necessarily professional meteorologists. They are most ofttimes reporters with piddling formal meteorological preparation, using unregulated titles such every bit weather specialist or weatherman. The American Meteorological Society and National Weather Association consequence "Seals of Approving" to weather broadcasters who meet sure requirements but this is non mandatory to be hired by the media.

Equipment [edit]

Each science has its own unique sets of laboratory equipment. In the temper, in that location are many things or qualities of the temper that can be measured. Pelting, which can be observed, or seen anywhere and someday was one of the outset atmospheric qualities measured historically. Also, two other accurately measured qualities are air current and humidity. Neither of these tin can be seen but can be felt. The devices to mensurate these three sprang upwards in the mid-15th century and were respectively the rain estimate, the anemometer, and the hygrometer. Many attempts had been made prior to the 15th century to construct acceptable equipment to measure the many atmospheric variables. Many were faulty in some fashion or were simply non reliable. Even Aristotle noted this in some of his work as the difficulty to mensurate the air.

Sets of surface measurements are important data to meteorologists. They give a snapshot of a diverseness of weather conditions at one single location and are usually at a weather station, a ship or a weather buoy. The measurements taken at a weather station can include any number of atmospheric observables. Usually, temperature, pressure level, current of air measurements, and humidity are the variables that are measured by a thermometer, barometer, anemometer, and hygrometer, respectively.[63] Professional stations may also include air quality sensors (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, dust, and smoke), ceilometer (cloud ceiling), falling precipitation sensor, overflowing sensor, lightning sensor, microphone (explosions, sonic booms, thunder), pyranometer/pyrheliometer/spectroradiometer (IR/Vis/UV photodiodes), rain gauge/snow estimate, scintillation counter (background radiation, fallout, radon), seismometer (earthquakes and tremors), transmissometer (visibility), and a GPS clock for data logging. Upper air data are of crucial importance for weather forecasting. The most widely used technique is launches of radiosondes. Supplementing the radiosondes a network of aircraft collection is organized by the World Meteorological Arrangement.

Remote sensing, as used in meteorology, is the concept of collecting information from remote weather events and subsequently producing weather information. The mutual types of remote sensing are Radar, Lidar, and satellites (or photogrammetry). Each collects data almost the atmosphere from a remote location and, usually, stores the data where the instrument is located. Radar and Lidar are not passive considering both employ EM radiation to illuminate a specific portion of the atmosphere.[64] Conditions satellites along with more than general-purpose Earth-observing satellites circling the earth at various altitudes have get an indispensable tool for studying a wide range of phenomena from wood fires to El Niño.

Spatial scales [edit]

The study of the atmosphere tin be divided into distinct areas that depend on both time and spatial scales. At i extreme of this calibration is climatology. In the timescales of hours to days, meteorology separates into micro-, meso-, and synoptic scale meteorology. Respectively, the geospatial size of each of these iii scales relates straight with the appropriate timescale.

Other subclassifications are used to describe the unique, local, or broad furnishings within those subclasses.

Typical Scales of Atmospheric Motion Systems [65]
Blazon of motion Horizontal scale (meter)
Molecular hateful free path 10−vii
Minute turbulent eddies x−2 – 10−1
Minor eddies x−1 – 1
Dust devils 1–10
Gusts 10 – xii
Tornadoes 10two
Thunderclouds 103
Fronts, squall lines xiv – 105
Hurricanes x5
Synoptic Cyclones 106
Planetary waves ten7
Atmospheric tides tenseven
Mean zonal wind 10vii

Microscale [edit]

Microscale meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena on a calibration of about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) or less. Individual thunderstorms, clouds, and local turbulence acquired by buildings and other obstacles (such as individual hills) are modeled on this calibration.[66]

Mesoscale [edit]

Mesoscale meteorology is the report of atmospheric phenomena that has horizontal scales ranging from 1 km to thou km and a vertical scale that starts at the Earth'southward surface and includes the atmospheric boundary layer, troposphere, tropopause, and the lower section of the stratosphere. Mesoscale timescales last from less than a day to multiple weeks. The events typically of involvement are thunderstorms, squall lines, fronts, precipitation bands in tropical and extratropical cyclones, and topographically generated conditions systems such as mountain waves and bounding main and state breezes.[67]

Synoptic scale [edit]

NOAA: Synoptic scale atmospheric condition analysis.

Synoptic calibration meteorology predicts atmospheric changes at scales up to 1000 km and x5 sec (28 days), in time and space. At the synoptic scale, the Coriolis acceleration acting on moving air masses (outside of the tropics) plays a dominant role in predictions. The phenomena typically described by synoptic meteorology include events such as extratropical cyclones, baroclinic troughs and ridges, frontal zones, and to some extent jet streams. All of these are typically given on weather maps for a specific time. The minimum horizontal scale of synoptic phenomena is express to the spacing between surface observation stations.[68]

Global scale [edit]

Annual hateful sea surface temperatures.

Global calibration meteorology is the study of atmospheric condition patterns related to the transport of heat from the tropics to the poles. Very big scale oscillations are of importance at this calibration. These oscillations have time periods typically on the order of months, such equally the Madden–Julian oscillation, or years, such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation and the Pacific decadal oscillation. Global scale meteorology pushes into the range of climatology. The traditional definition of climate is pushed into larger timescales and with the understanding of the longer time calibration global oscillations, their effect on climate and weather disturbances tin can exist included in the synoptic and mesoscale timescales predictions.

Numerical Atmospheric condition Prediction is a main focus in agreement air–bounding main interaction, tropical meteorology, atmospheric predictability, and tropospheric/stratospheric processes.[69] The Naval Research Laboratory in Monterey, California, developed a global atmospheric model called Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction Organisation (NOGAPS). NOGAPS is run operationally at Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Centre for the The states Military. Many other global atmospheric models are run past national meteorological agencies.

Some meteorological principles [edit]

Boundary layer meteorology [edit]

Boundary layer meteorology is the study of processes in the air layer direct higher up World's surface, known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The effects of the surface – heating, cooling, and friction – crusade turbulent mixing inside the air layer. Pregnant movement of heat, matter, or momentum on time scales of less than a day are caused past turbulent motions.[70] Boundary layer meteorology includes the study of all types of surface–temper boundary, including ocean, lake, urban land and non-urban land for the study of meteorology.

Dynamic meteorology [edit]

Dynamic meteorology generally focuses on the fluid dynamics of the temper. The thought of air parcel is used to ascertain the smallest chemical element of the atmosphere, while ignoring the detached molecular and chemical nature of the atmosphere. An air packet is divers as a point in the fluid continuum of the temper. The fundamental laws of fluid dynamics, thermodynamics, and motion are used to study the atmosphere. The physical quantities that characterize the state of the atmosphere are temperature, density, pressure, etc. These variables have unique values in the continuum.[71]

Applications [edit]

Atmospheric condition forecasting [edit]

Forecast of surface pressures five days into the future for the north Pacific, N America, and north Atlantic Ocean

Weather forecasting is the application of scientific discipline and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere at a time to come fourth dimension and given location. Humans accept attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia and formally since at to the lowest degree the 19th century.[72] [73] Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the electric current state of the temper and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to projection how the atmosphere volition evolve.[74]

Once an all-human attempt based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure, current weather conditions, and heaven condition,[75] [76] forecast models are at present used to determine future conditions. Human input is still required to pick the all-time possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involves pattern recognition skills, teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and noesis of model biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that draw the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial weather condition, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is existence fabricated (the range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the fault and option the most likely outcome.[77] [78] [79]

There are a variety of end uses to conditions forecasts. Weather warnings are of import forecasts considering they are used to protect life and property.[80] Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agronomics,[81] [82] [83] [84] and therefore to commodity traders within stock markets. Temperature forecasts are used past utility companies to guess demand over coming days.[85] [86] [87] On an everyday ground, people utilize weather forecasts to decide what to wear. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed past heavy rain, snowfall, and air current chill, forecasts can be used to programme activities around these events, and to plan alee and survive them.

Aviation meteorology [edit]

Aviation meteorology deals with the impact of weather on air traffic management. It is of import for air crews to empathise the implications of atmospheric condition on their flight plan as well as their aircraft, as noted by the Aeronautical Information Manual:[88]

The furnishings of water ice on shipping are cumulative—thrust is reduced, drag increases, lift lessens, and weight increases. The results are an increase in stall speed and a deterioration of shipping functioning. In extreme cases, 2 to three inches of ice can class on the leading edge of the airfoil in less than five minutes. It takes only 1/2 inch of ice to reduce the lifting ability of some aircraft past 50 percent and increases the frictional drag by an equal percentage. [89]

Agricultural meteorology [edit]

Meteorologists, soil scientists, agronomical hydrologists, and agronomists are people concerned with studying the effects of weather and climate on institute distribution, ingather yield, water-use efficiency, phenology of found and brute development, and the free energy balance of managed and natural ecosystems. Conversely, they are interested in the office of vegetation on climate and weather.[ninety]

Hydrometeorology [edit]

Hydrometeorology is the co-operative of meteorology that deals with the hydrologic wheel, the h2o budget, and the rainfall statistics of storms.[91] A hydrometeorologist prepares and issues forecasts of accumulating (quantitative) atmospheric precipitation, heavy rain, heavy snowfall, and highlights areas with the potential for wink flooding. Typically the range of noesis that is required overlaps with climatology, mesoscale and synoptic meteorology, and other geosciences.[92]

The multidisciplinary nature of the branch tin result in technical challenges, since tools and solutions from each of the individual disciplines involved may deport slightly differently, exist optimized for different hard- and software platforms and utilize different data formats. There are some initiatives – such as the DRIHM project[93] – that are trying to address this issue.[94]

Nuclear meteorology [edit]

Nuclear meteorology investigates the distribution of radioactive aerosols and gases in the temper.[95]

Maritime meteorology [edit]

Maritime meteorology deals with air and wave forecasts for ships operating at bounding main. Organizations such equally the Ocean Prediction Center, Honolulu National Weather Service forecast role, Great britain Met Role, and JMA prepare high seas forecasts for the world'due south oceans.

Military meteorology [edit]

Military machine meteorology is the enquiry and awarding of meteorology for armed forces purposes. In the United States, the United states Navy's Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Control oversees meteorological efforts for the Navy and Marine Corps while the United States Air Force's Air Forcefulness Weather Agency is responsible for the Air Force and Army.

Environmental meteorology [edit]

Environmental meteorology mainly analyzes industrial pollution dispersion physically and chemically based on meteorological parameters such as temperature, humidity, wind, and various weather condition conditions.

Renewable energy [edit]

Meteorology applications in renewable energy includes bones enquiry, "exploration," and potential mapping of wind power and solar radiation for wind and solar free energy.

See also [edit]

  • Aerography
  • American Practical Navigator
  • Atmospheric circulation
  • Atmospheric layers
  • Atmospheric models
  • Atmospheric pressure
  • Atmospheric thermodynamics
  • Automated airport weather condition station
  • Deject
  • Eddy covariance flux (eddy correlation, eddy flux)
  • El Niño–Southern Oscillation
  • Alphabetize of meteorology articles
  • Indigenous Australian seasons
  • List of cloud types
  • List of meteorology institutions
  • List of Russian meteorologists
  • List of conditions instruments
  • Madden–Julian oscillation
  • Meteorological winter
  • National Weatherperson's Solar day
  • Precipitation
  • ROFOR
  • Space conditions
  • Walker circulation
  • Weather station

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

  • Byers, Horace. General Meteorology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
  • Garret, J.R. (1992) [1992]. The atmospheric purlieus layer . Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-38052-2.
  • Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Club (2d ed.). Allen Press. 2000. {{cite volume}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  • Bluestein, H (1992) [1992]. Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Principles of Kinematics and Dynamics, Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-xix-506267-0.
  • Bluestein, H (1993) [1993]. Synoptic-Dynamic Meteorology in Midlatitudes: Volume II: Observations and Theory of Weather Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-506268-7.
  • Reynolds, R (2005) [2005]. Guide to Weather. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books Inc. p. 208. ISBN978-one-55407-110-4.
  • Holton, J.R. (2004) [2004]. An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology (4th ed.). Burlington, Doc: Elsevier Inc. ISBN978-0-12-354015-7. Archived from the original on 19 July 2013. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
  • Roulstone, Ian & Norbury, John (2013). Invisible in the Storm: the role of mathematics in agreement weather. Princeton Academy Printing. ISBN978-0691152721.

Dictionaries and encyclopedias [edit]

  • Glickman, Todd S. (June 2000). Meteorology Glossary (electronic) (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Lodge.
  • Gustavo Herrera, Roberto; García-Herrera, Ricardo; Prieto, Luis; Gallego, David; Hernández, Emiliano; Gimeno, Luis; Können, Gunther; Koek, Frits; Wheeler, Dennis; Wilkinson, Clive; Del Rosario Prieto, Maria; Báez, Carlos; Woodruff, Scott. A Dictionary of Nautical Meteorological Terms: CLIWOC Multilingual Dictionary of Meteorological Terms; An English/Spanish/French/Dutch Dictionary of Windforce Terms Used by Mariners from 1750 to 1850 (PDF). CLIWOC.
  • "Meteorology Encyclopedia". Central Atmospheric condition Agency. half dozen Dec 2018. Archived from the original on 21 September 2014. Retrieved xiv September 2014.

External links [edit]

Delight see weather forecasting for weather condition forecast sites.

  • Air Quality Meteorology – Online course that introduces the bones concepts of meteorology and air quality necessary to understand meteorological computer models. Written at a bachelor's degree level.
  • The GLOBE Program – (Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment) An international ecology science and education program that links students, teachers, and the scientific enquiry community in an endeavour to larn more about the environment through student data drove and observation.
  • Glossary of Meteorology – From the American Meteorological Society, an splendid reference of nomenclature, equations, and concepts for the more avant-garde reader.
  • JetStream – An Online School for Weather – National Weather Service
  • Larn About Meteorology – Australian Bureau of Meteorology
  • The Weather Guide – Weather Tutorials and News at About.com
  • Meteorology Education and Training (MetEd) – The COMET Program
  • NOAA Central Library – National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
  • The World Weather 2010 Project Archived 19 August 2008 at the Wayback Car The Academy of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
  • Ogimet – online information from meteorological stations of the earth, obtained through NOAA free services
  • National Heart for Atmospheric Enquiry Archives, documents the history of meteorology
  • Weather forecasting and Climate science – United Kingdom Meteorological Function
  • Meteorology, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Vladimir Janković, Richard Hambyn and Iba Taub (In Our Fourth dimension, half dozen March 2003)
  • Virtual exhibition about meteorology on the digital library of Paris Observatory

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology

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